JLPT N1 reference · Discourse and information structure
は and が in extended discourse
Across several sentences, the choice manages accessibility and viewpoint rather than encoding one permanent subject rule.
Core meaning and form
Use は to maintain, contrast, or reframe a discourse topic; use が to identify, introduce, or locally focus a grammatical subject. A referent introduced with が may later become a continuing は topic; embedded clauses have their own information structure.
- Form: Use は to maintain, contrast, or reframe a discourse topic; use が to identify, introduce, or locally focus a grammatical subject.
- Core use: Across several sentences, the choice manages accessibility and viewpoint rather than encoding one permanent subject rule.
- Context: A referent introduced with が may later become a continuing は topic; embedded clauses have their own information structure.
Examples in context
庭に猫がいた。その猫は窓の前で寝ていた。Niwa ni neko ga ita. Sono neko wa mado no mae de nete ita.There was a cat in the garden. The cat was sleeping by the window.
私は行きますが、弟は行きません。Watashi wa ikimasu ga, otōto wa ikimasen.I will go, but my brother will not.
問題なのは費用が高いことだ。Mondai na no wa hiyō ga takai koto da.The problem is that the cost is high.
Common errors
- Do not select this pattern from an English translation alone; check its attachment and discourse function.
- Keep the surrounding sentence in a consistent plain, polite, spoken, or written register.
Quick summary
- Use は to maintain, contrast, or reframe a discourse topic; use が to identify, introduce, or locally focus a grammatical subject.
- Across several sentences, the choice manages accessibility and viewpoint rather than encoding one permanent subject rule.
- A referent introduced with が may later become a continuing は topic; embedded clauses have their own information structure.